Introduction

By the end of the 13th century, South India was divided among four kingdoms:

1. Yadavas (North-west).
2. Kakatiyas (North-east).
3. Hoysalas (Central regions).
4. Pandyas (Far south).

These kingdoms were often in conflict with each other and faced invasions from the Delhi Sultanate. After the decline of the Sultanate’s power in the 14th century, South Indian states began to collapse, paving the way for the Vijayanagara Empire to emerge. Founded in the Tungabhadra region, Vijayanagara quickly became South India’s largest and most powerful empire, displaying immense imperial grandeur at its zenith.

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Geography and Physical Layout of the Capital

The Vijayanagara Empire extended over modern-day Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, covering diverse ecological and topographic zones:

• Upland semi-arid regions with seasonal irrigation and rugged terrain.
• River valleys (e.g., Tungabhadra and Krishna) used for agricultural expansion.
• Coastal areas that promoted trade and maritime connectivity.

City Layout

The capital city of Vijayanagara was divided into:

1. Sacred Centre:

   • Located in the northern part of the city.
   • Included major temples like Virupaksha, Krishna, Vithala, and Tiruvengalanatha.
   • Surrounded by bazaars, shrines, and residential areas.

2. Urban Core:

   • Surrounded by fortifications and included gateways, roads, halls, and royal structures.
   • Contained residential areas for elites and commoners.
   • Included an Islamic quarter with a mosque and cemetery, reflecting a multicultural environment.

The Raichur Doab (between the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers) remained a contested region throughout the Vijayanagara period.

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Sources

The reconstruction of Vijayanagara history relies on literary, archaeological, and inscriptional evidence:

1. Literary Sources:

   • Royal Biographies: Works like Madhuravijayam by Queen Gangadevi, Sobagina Sone by Devaraya II, and Amuktamalyada by Krishnadevaraya.
   • Religious and Legendary Texts: Depict rituals and traditions associated with kingship.

2. Travelers’ Accounts:
   Foreign travelers provide vivid descriptions of Vijayanagara society, economy, and political structure. Examples include:

   • Ibn Battuta (during Harihara I’s reign).
   • Abdur Razzak (Deva Raya II’s reign).
   • Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz (Krishnadevaraya and Achyuta Raya’s reigns).
   • Duarte Barbosa (Portuguese traveler).

3. Colonial Records:

   • Accounts by British officials such as Colin Mackenzie and Thomas Munro in the 18th–19th centuries.

4. Epigraphic Sources:
   Thousands of inscriptions record donations, temple patronage, and administrative orders.

5. Archaeological Evidence:

   • Fortifications, palaces, and temples.
   • Surface artifacts like ceramics and sculptures.

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Political and Dynastic History

The Vijayanagara Empire was ruled by four dynasties:

1. Sangama Dynasty (C.E. 1336–1485):

   • Founded by Harihara I and Bukka I.
   • Bukka I shifted the capital from Anegondi to Vijayanagara.
   • Conflicts with the Bahmani Sultanate over the Krishna-Tungabhadra Doab marked this period.
   • Devaraya I and Devaraya II expanded the kingdom and consolidated power.

2. Saluva Dynasty (C.E. 1485–1505):

   • Saluva Narasimha seized power amidst political instability.
   • His successor, Viranarasimha, strengthened the military and maintained Portuguese relations.

3. Tuluva Dynasty (C.E. 1505–1569):

   • Marked the peak of Vijayanagara’s power and territorial expansion.
   • Krishnadevaraya, the greatest ruler, expanded the empire, constructed towns, and promoted art and literature.

4. Aravidu Dynasty (C.E. 1569–1654):

   • Ruled from Penukonda, Chandragiri, and Vellore after the capital’s destruction at Talikota in 1565.

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Articulation and Organization of Political Authority

Vijayanagara as a Capital City

The city’s architecture and urban layout symbolized royal power and cosmic order:

• Kings were depicted as warriors, hunters, and patrons of prosperity through artistic panels and monuments.
• The Ramachandra Temple served as the nucleus of the royal center, aligning the king with Lord Rama as the ideal God-King.
• Royal processions, entertainment, and temple donations showcased the king’s power as a redistributor of wealth and protector of dharma.

Mahanavami Festival

The Mahanavami festival was central to legitimizing kingship:

• Celebrated over nine days with a grand final day (Dasami).
• Witnessed by foreign travelers like Nicolo Conti and Abdur Razzak.
• Rituals included tributes from subordinate rulers, military parades, and public demonstrations of wealth.
• The Mahanavami Platform served as the focal point for royal ceremonies and rituals.

Islamicate Political Culture

The Vijayanagara rulers adopted Islamicate cultural practices to participate in a broader cosmopolitan political culture:

1. Court Dress: Adoption of long-sleeved tunics (kubayi) and conical caps (kullai).
2. Titles: Use of titles like ‘Hindu-raya-suratrana’ (Sultan among Hindu kings).
3. Military Techniques: Incorporation of Turkish cavalry and employment of Muslim soldiers.
4. Architecture: Fusion of Islamic domes and arches with Hindu temple features (e.g., stepped roofs and ornate decoration).

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Historiographical Debate

Different Interpretations of the Vijayanagara State:

1. N. Sastri:

   • Vijayanagara was a centralized Hindu military state.
   • The king upheld Hindu dharma but relied on subordinate warrior chiefs.

2. Burton Stein:

   • Proposed the Segmentary State Model, where power was ritualistic and distributed among local rulers.

3. Norobu Karashima:

   • Characterized the Nayankara system as feudal, with hierarchical relationships between the king, Nayakas, and subordinates.

4. Richard Eaton and Philip Wagoner:

   • Highlighted Islamicate influences (e.g., iqtadari system, court customs).

5. Carla Sinopoli:

   • Emphasized the role of craft production and the temple economy in imperial organization.

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Vijayanagara Polity

• The empire was divided into provinces (Rajyas and Mandalams).
• The Nayankara System assigned land (amaram) to military chiefs (Nayakas) in return for revenue collection and military service.
• Land tenures included:
  • Bhandarvada: Crown land.
  • Manya: Tax-free land (e.g., Brahmadeya for Brahmins, Devadana for temples).

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Vijayanagara Society and Religion

• Society witnessed the rise of new jatis based on professions.
• Social divisions:
  • Vadangai: Agricultural castes.
  • Idangai: Marginalized artisans and traders.
• Temples served as socio-economic hubs, receiving donations for land improvements and irrigation projects.

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Vijayanagara Economy

• Agriculture: Expansion through irrigation, producing rice, sugarcane, and millets.
• Monetization: Increased use of coins (gold, silver, copper) due to trade and temple-based economies.
• Trade: Internal trade and global commerce connected Vijayanagara to:
  • Persia (horses), China (silk), Sri Lanka (elephants), and Sumatra (camphor).

Key Ports: Pulicat, Bhatkal, and Basrur facilitated international trade, while temple towns like Tirupati stimulated local economies.

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Conclusion

The Vijayanagara Empire combined local traditions with Islamicate cosmopolitanism to create a distinct political and cultural identity. Its political power was maintained through rituals like the Mahanavami festival, economic control over strategic goods, and a flexible administrative system led by the Nayakas. Society saw notable social mobility, and its economy thrived through agriculture, trade, and monetization, making Vijayanagara a remarkable example of South Indian imperial power.

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