Introduction
The Gandhian phase of the nationalist movement, often seen as the third phase in the Indian freedom struggle, marked the rise of mass mobilization. Under Mahatma Gandhi's leadership, millions of people from various sections of society came together for the common cause of Indian independence. Gandhi, with his simple life and identification with the masses, became a symbol of nationalist India. He represented a unified India, focusing on issues of unity, non-violence, untouchability, Hindu-Muslim unity, and gender equality. His ideology and approach to the nationalist struggle made it the greatest mass movement in the world.
Gandhi’s vision was to create an India where the poorest felt that the country was theirs, where class distinctions were removed, women were treated equally, and untouchability was abolished. He felt that it was essential for the Indian masses to unite and struggle together for complete independence (Purna Swaraj).
The Rise of Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi, born on 2nd October 1869 in Porbandar, Gujarat, is perhaps the most influential leader in the Indian freedom struggle. Gandhi’s early life in South Africa played a key role in shaping his philosophies of non-violence (Ahimsa) and truth (Satya).
- Early Struggles in South Africa:
- Gandhi went to South Africa to practice law, where he encountered racial discrimination against the Indian immigrants. The British treated the Indians harshly, denying them basic rights, including the right to vote and to live freely.
- He organized the Natal Indian Congress and launched campaigns against the racial injustice in South Africa, introducing Satyagraha, a method of peaceful civil disobedience that became the hallmark of his future movements in India.
- In South Africa, Gandhi also founded the Indian Opinion newspaper, which became an important voice for the rights of Indians there.
Ideals of a True Satyagrahi
Gandhi was deeply influenced by both Western thinkers like Henry David Thoreau, John Ruskin, and Leo Tolstoy, as well as Eastern philosophies, especially Vaishnavism and Jainism. His philosophy, known as Gandhian thought, was based on the principles of truth and non-violence.
- Key Principles of Satyagraha:
- A true Satyagrahi should be:
- Truthful and peaceful.
- Committed to non-violence, never submitting to wrong.
- Focused on cooperation and boycott.
- Practice passive resistance, like non-payment of taxes, and refuse government positions, instead of using violent methods.
- Loving even those who commit evil, and holding no hatred against them.
- Gandhi emphasized that non-violence was the quality of the strong, while violence was a sign of weakness.
- A true Satyagrahi should be:
Return to India
Gandhi returned to India in 1915, after his successful struggles in South Africa. Though his efforts in South Africa were well known, his influence in India had not yet reached the masses. Gandhi believed that to truly understand the Indian struggle and to unite the country, it was important to first understand the conditions at the grassroots level.
- Gandhi traveled extensively across India, interacting with people from various walks of life, understanding their issues, and inspiring them for the nationalist cause.
Initial Journey in India
Gandhi’s initial journey in India is marked by his involvement in several key movements that shaped his approach to mass mobilization:
-
Champaran Satyagraha (1917):
- This is considered the first civil disobedience movement in India.
- Gandhi intervened on behalf of peasants in Champaran, Bihar, who were being exploited by British indigo planters under the Tinkathia System, where peasants were forced to grow indigo on a portion of their land and sell it to the planters at a fixed price.
- Gandhi’s intervention helped empower the peasants, who had previously feared standing up against the British planters. His leadership sparked the first local mass movement, leading to a significant victory for the peasants.
-
Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918):
- Gandhi mediated a dispute between workers and mill owners in Ahmedabad, demanding a 35% wage increase for the workers.
- Gandhi employed his Satyagraha principles to convince mill owners to agree to the workers' demands, which resulted in a victory for the workers and further consolidated Gandhi’s status as a leader of the masses.
-
Kheda Satyagraha (1918):
- In Kheda, Gujarat, farmers were struggling due to crop failure and were unable to pay the high land taxes imposed by the British.
- Gandhi organized the farmers to withhold tax payments as a form of non-cooperation with the British. As a result, the British government was forced to reduce the tax and return the confiscated property to the farmers.
- This movement marked the first non-cooperation movement, where Gandhi had successfully used non-violent resistance to demand justice.
Khilafat and the Non-Cooperation Movement
The Khilafat Movement and the Non-Cooperation Movement were two major movements that further united Hindus and Muslims in their struggle against British rule. The Khilafat Movement focused on protesting the British treatment of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), while the Non-Cooperation Movement aimed at complete non-violent resistance against British rule.
Background of the Movement
-
Economic Conditions Post-WWI:
After World War I, India faced economic hardships with high inflation, a decline in industrial production, and rising prices. The economic situation made the masses increasingly disillusioned with British colonial rule. -
Repressive Acts and the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre:
The Rowlatt Act (1919), which allowed the British to arrest anyone without trial, and the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre in 1919 further angered Indians. The massacre, where General Dyer opened fire on a peaceful crowd, killed hundreds of Indians, marking a turning point in the Indian freedom struggle. -
Constitutional Reforms – The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms (1919):
The British government promised constitutional reforms, including a dyarchy system. However, this failed to grant real self-governance to Indians, leading to disillusionment.
The Khilafat Issue
- Muslim Discontent with British:
The Muslim community was upset with the British decision to dethrone the Khalifa (Sultan of Turkey), who was considered the spiritual leader of Muslims worldwide. The British decision was seen as an affront to the Islamic community, and Indian Muslims rallied for the restoration of the Khalifa's power and territories.- The Khilafat Conference was organized in 1919 under the leadership of the Ali brothers (Shaukat Ali and Mohammad Ali) to demand the reinstatement of the Khalifa.
Gandhi’s Stand on Khilafat
-
Unity of Hindus and Muslims:
Gandhi viewed the Khilafat Movement as a unique opportunity to unite Hindus and Muslims in a common cause against British rule. He saw it as a way to foster national unity and galvanize both communities to join the freedom struggle.- Gandhi believed that Hindu-Muslim unity was essential for the success of the nationalist movement. He actively supported the Khilafat Movement, encouraging the Congress to align with it.
-
Support for the Movement:
Gandhi, alongside the Ali brothers, traveled across India to mobilize support for the movement. The movement gained widespread popularity, with students, lawyers, peasants, and women joining the struggle.
Spread of the Movement
- Mass Participation:
The Non-Cooperation Movement became a mass movement, involving millions of Indians from all sections of society:- Students: Many students left government schools and joined nationalist institutions.
- Lawyers: Prominent leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, C.R. Das, and C. Rajagopalachari resigned from their legal practices in support of the movement.
- Peasants: In regions like Rajasthan, Sindh, Awadh, and Assam, peasants revolted against landlords and traders in solidarity with the movement.
- Women: Women played an active role in the Non-Cooperation Movement, giving up their jewelry and other possessions in support of the Swadeshi (self-reliance) movement, and participating in picketing and boycotts.
Aftermath of the Movement
-
Chauri Chaura Incident (1922):
The Non-Cooperation Movement was called off by Gandhi after the Chauri Chaura incident in Uttar Pradesh. In this incident, a mob of protesters set fire to a police station, killing 22 policemen. Gandhi believed that the movement had turned violent, contradicting his principle of non-violence, and decided to suspend the movement to prevent further violence. -
Impact on Hindu-Muslim Unity:
While the Khilafat Movement brought Hindus and Muslims together, the failure of the movement and the violence at Chauri Chaura weakened the alliance, and the unity between the two communities began to fade.
The Civil Disobedience Movement
After the failure of the Non-Cooperation Movement, Gandhi, with support from other Congress leaders, launched the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930. This movement was more focused on complete independence (Purna Swaraj) and included mass actions like the boycott of British goods and non-payment of taxes.
Background
-
Increased Dissatisfaction with British Rule:
By 1928, young leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose expressed dissatisfaction with the dominion status offered by the British. These leaders, known as the Swarajists, demanded complete independence. -
Gandhi’s Constructive Work:
Gandhi emphasized constructive work in villages, promoting self-reliance through Swadeshi (boycott of foreign goods) and education. His ideas resonated with the masses, particularly the poor, as he focused on their needs and grievances. -
Irwin’s Declaration (1929):
In 1929, Lord Irwin, the British Viceroy, promised Dominion Status for India but failed to offer real political rights. This was seen as insufficient by the Congress and nationalist leaders.
The Independence Pledge (26th January 1930)
On 26th January 1930, a public pledge was made during the Lahore Congress session to demand complete independence from British rule.
- Key Points of the Pledge:
- Freedom was declared as the inalienable right of Indians.
- The British government was held responsible for India's backwardness and exploitation.
- Indians committed to the cause of Purna Swaraj (complete independence).
Gandhi’s Demands
During the Lahore Congress session of 1929, Gandhi laid out several demands that reflected both general and specific interests:
- Economic and Social Reforms:
- Reduction in the expenditure on the army and civil services.
- Release of political prisoners.
- Control of firearms licenses and regulation of the judicial system.
- Textile production and coastal shipping to be reserved for Indians.
Dandi March (1930)
On 12th March 1930, Gandhi embarked on the Dandi March, which marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement. Gandhi and his followers marched from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi, on the Gujarat coast, to make salt from sea water, defying the British monopoly on salt production.
- Mass Participation:
- The Dandi March inspired massive participation from peasants, students, women, and workers, leading to a widespread non-cooperation with the British government.